O Level Pakistan Studies History key facts

Cultural and historical background to the Pakistan Movement: Mughal decline and the religious thinkers

Decline of the Mughal Empire

• Aurangzeb ruled 1658 to 1707; he reimposed the jizya in 1679.
• Deccan campaigns, 1681 to 1707: very costly and kept the emperor away from the north.
• No fixed law of succession, so each emperor's death brought a war between princes.
• Muhammad Shah 'Rangila' (1719 to 1748) loved pleasure while real power slipped away.
• Hyderabad, Awadh and Bengal were ruled almost independently by the 1740s.
• Nadir Shah of Persia sacked Delhi in 1739 and took the Peacock Throne.
• Third Battle of Panipat, 1761: Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas.

The East India Company: arrival and expansion to 1857

• 1600: the Company was founded to trade; Surat was its first major trading post, with Emperor Jahangir's permission.
• Plassey, 1757: Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Bengal.
• Buxar, 1764: the Company then received the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa from Shah Alam II (1765).
• Subsidiary alliance (Lord Wellesley): a ruler paid for British troops and gave up his own foreign policy.
• 1803: the British took Delhi; the emperor kept his title but lived on a British pension.
• Sindh was conquered by Sir Charles Napier in 1843; the Punjab, with Peshawar, was annexed in 1849 after the Second Anglo-Sikh War.
• Tribal Territory was governed indirectly, through political agents and jirgas.

Shah Waliullah

• Shah Waliullah lived 1703 to 1762 in Delhi (18th century).
• His father, Shah Abdul Rahim, founded the Madrasa-e-Rahimiya, which Shah Waliullah later led.
• He translated the Quran into Persian, so more Muslims could understand it.
• Hujjat Allah al-Baligha is his major work on the purposes of Islamic law.
• He stressed the common ground between schools of thought to reduce sectarian division.
• His letter to Ahmad Shah Abdali was followed by the defeat of the Marathas at Panipat in 1761.
• His sons taught his ideas and translated the Quran into Urdu.

Syed Ahmad Barelvi and the Jihad movement

• Born 1786 at Rae Bareli; studied under Shah Abdul Aziz in Delhi.
• Tariqa-i-Muhammadiya: his movement calling Muslims back to pure Islamic practice.
• The jihad was fought mainly against the Sikh rule of Ranjit Singh.
• The north-west was chosen as the base: tribal support, and it bordered Sikh territory.
• Peshawar was captured in 1830 but lost soon afterwards.
• Balakot, 1831: Syed Ahmad Barelvi and Shah Ismail were killed.
• Reasons for failure: some Pathan chiefs deserted him, partly over Islamic laws and ushr; the Sikh army was stronger and better armed.

Haji Shariatullah and the Faraizi Movement

• Haji Shariatullah (1781 to 1840) worked in Bengal after a long stay in Makkah.
• Faraizi comes from faraiz, the obligatory duties of Islam.
• He regarded British India as Dar-ul-Harb, so he said Friday and Eid congregational prayers should not be held.
• He used 'ustad' and 'shagird' instead of 'pir' and 'murid', to reject excessive reverence for pirs.
• The movement opposed Hindu zamindars and British indigo planters.
• Dudu Miyan led from 1840: local agents (khalifas) and resistance to illegal taxes.
• Importance: unity, confidence and a religious identity for poor Bengali Muslims.

Cultural and historical background to the Pakistan Movement: 1857, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and languages

Causes, course and failure of the War of Independence 1857

• Doctrine of Lapse: a state with no natural male heir passed to the Company, so its rulers turned against the British.
• Awadh was annexed in 1856; many Bengal Army sepoys came from Awadh.
• General Service Enlistment Act, 1856: new sepoys had to serve overseas if ordered.
• Greased cartridges: cow fat offended Hindus, pig fat offended Muslims.
• The revolt began at Meerut on 10 May 1857.
• Bahadur Shah Zafar was made leader by the rebels but had little real control.
• Reasons for failure: no united plan or leadership; the Punjab stayed largely quiet and its troops helped retake Delhi; the British had the telegraph and better weapons.

Consequences of the War of Independence

• Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried and exiled to Rangoon.
• Government of India Act 1858: Company rule ended; India came under the Crown.
• Secretary of State for India: the new post in London in charge of Indian affairs.
• The Governor-General was also given the title Viceroy, as the Crown's representative.
• Queen Victoria's Proclamation, 1858: respect for Indian religions, no further annexations.
• Army: more British troops, and the artillery kept in British hands.
• Indian Councils Act 1861: some Indian members added to the councils, to hear Indian opinion.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: education and the Aligarh Movement

• Sir Syed wanted Muslims to learn English and modern science so they could compete for government jobs.
• He opened schools at Moradabad and Ghazipur before Aligarh.
• Scientific Society, 1863 (at Ghazipur; moved to Aligarh in 1864): translated Western books into Urdu.
• Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq: his journal urging Muslims to reform their social customs.
• MAO school at Aligarh opened in 1875; it was modelled on Oxford and Cambridge.
• Muhammadan Educational Conference, 1886: spread modern education among Muslims across India.
• Conservative ulama opposed his ideas; the movement produced educated Muslims who later led Muslim politics.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: religion, politics and the Two-Nation Theory

• 'The Causes of the Indian Revolt' (1859): Indians' lack of a voice in government caused misunderstanding.
• 'The Loyal Muhammadans of India': showed that many Muslims stayed loyal in 1857.
• Tabyin-ul-Kalam: his commentary on the Bible.
• Khutbat-e-Ahmadiya: his answer to William Muir's hostile biography of the Prophet (PBUH).
• Hindi-Urdu Controversy, 1867, began in Benares.
• Congress was founded in 1885; Sir Syed advised Muslims to stay out of it.
• United Indian Patriotic Association, 1888: set up to counter the Congress claim to speak for all Indians.

Urdu and regional languages

• 'Urdu' comes from a Turkic word meaning camp or army.
• Reasons for choosing Urdu: link with the Pakistan Movement, widely understood, a force for unity.
• Disadvantage: few Pakistanis speak it as their mother tongue; East Pakistanis mostly spoke Bengali.
• 1956 Constitution: Urdu and Bengali both became national languages.
• Sindhi: Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, 'Shah jo Risalo'; Sindhi Language Bill 1972 made Sindhi an official language of Sindh, and riots followed.
• Pushto: Khushal Khan Khattak; promoted through the Pashto Academy and Pushto broadcasts.
• Balochi: Jam Durrak. Punjabi: Bulleh Shah and Waris Shah.

The emergence of Pakistan: 1905 to 1939

The Partition of Bengal, 1905-1911

• 1905: Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal.
• Official reason: the province was too large to govern well.
• East Bengal and Assam had a Muslim majority; its capital was Dhaka.
• Muslims of East Bengal welcomed it; many Hindus protested through the Swadeshi boycott of British goods.
• 1911: the Partition was reversed, and the capital was moved from Calcutta to Delhi.
• Reason for reversal: Hindu agitation made the Partition hard to maintain.
• Effects: Muslims saw the need for their own party (Muslim League, 1906) and later doubted British promises.

The Simla Deputation, the Muslim League and the Minto-Morley Reforms, 1906-1909

• Simla Deputation: October 1906, led by the Aga Khan, met Viceroy Lord Minto.
• Its demands: separate electorates and more seats than Muslim numbers alone would give (weightage).
• Muslim League: founded in December 1906 at Dhaka, at the meeting of the Muhammadan Educational Conference hosted by Nawab Salimullah Khan.
• League aims in 1906: protect Muslim political rights, promote loyalty to the British, avoid hostility towards other communities.
• Minto-Morley Reforms (Indian Councils Act 1909): Lord Minto was Viceroy, John Morley was Secretary of State for India.
• 1909 terms: larger central and provincial councils, separate electorates for Muslims, an Indian on the Viceroy's Executive Council; councils could only advise.
• Reactions: the League welcomed separate electorates; the Congress said they divided Indians and wanted real power, not advice.

The Lucknow Pact to the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, 1914-1919

• Lucknow Pact, December 1916: the Congress accepted separate electorates and one-third of the central seats for Muslims.
• In return Muslims took fewer seats than their population share in the Punjab and Bengal, and extra seats (weightage) where they were a minority.
• Jinnah, a member of both parties, helped to make the pact and was called the 'Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity'.
• Rowlatt Act 1919: arrest without warrant and detention without trial. Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council in protest.
• Amritsar Massacre, 13 April 1919: General Dyer's troops fired on an unarmed crowd in Jallianwala Bagh.
• Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (Government of India Act 1919): Edwin Montagu was Secretary of State, Lord Chelmsford was Viceroy.
• Dyarchy: in each province 'transferred' subjects (such as education and health) went to Indian ministers; 'reserved' subjects (such as police and justice) stayed with the British governor.

The Khilafat Movement, 1919-1924

• Aims: protect the Caliphate, keep the Ottoman Empire intact, keep the holy places under Muslim control.
• Leaders: Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar and Maulana Shaukat Ali (the Ali brothers), with Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.
• First Khilafat Conference: Delhi, November 1919. Delegation to London under Muhammad Ali Jauhar, 1920: Lloyd George refused to change the terms for Turkey.
• Hijrat Movement, 1920: thousands of Muslims left for Afghanistan after India was declared dar-ul-harb; Afghanistan closed its border and many returned ruined.
• Chauri Chaura, February 1922: a crowd killed policemen, so Gandhi called off Non-Cooperation.
• 1924: Mustafa Kemal Ataturk abolished the Caliphate, which ended the movement.
• Results: Hindu-Muslim unity collapsed, but ordinary Muslims had been drawn into mass politics for the first time.

The Delhi Proposals, Simon Commission, Nehru Report and Jinnah's Fourteen Points, 1927-1929

• Delhi Proposals, 1927: separate electorates to be given up if Sindh was separated from Bombay, reforms came to the NWFP and Balochistan, Muslims had one-third of central seats, and seats in the Punjab and Bengal matched population.
• Simon Commission: appointed 1927, in India 1928, all British members; met with boycott and the cry 'Simon, go back'.
• Nehru Report, 1928 (chaired by Motilal Nehru): dominion status, joint electorates with no separate electorates, a strong central government.
• Muslim objections: loss of separate electorates, no one-third share at the centre, and a strong centre that the Hindu majority would control.
• Jinnah's amendments were rejected at the All Parties meeting in Calcutta, December 1928.
• Fourteen Points, 1929: a federation with residuary powers in the provinces, provincial autonomy, separate electorates, one-third of central seats, Sindh separated from Bombay, reforms in the NWFP and Balochistan, full religious freedom.
• Communalism in the 1920s: Hindu Shuddhi (reconversion) and Sangathan (organisation) movements, Muslim Tabligh and Tanzim in reply, and frequent riots.

The Round Table Conferences and the Communal Award, 1930-1932

• First conference, November 1930 to January 1931: no Congress; the princes agreed to join an all-India federation; responsible government in the provinces was accepted.
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact, March 1931: civil disobedience was suspended, prisoners were released and Gandhi agreed to attend.
• Second conference, September to December 1931: Gandhi was the only Congress delegate; deadlock over minority representation.
• Third conference, November to December 1932: the Congress was absent and Jinnah was not invited; little was achieved.
• Communal Award, August 1932: announced by Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald; kept separate electorates for Muslims and other minorities and gave them to the depressed classes.
• Gandhi fasted against separate electorates for the depressed classes; the Poona Pact (1932) with Dr Ambedkar gave them reserved seats inside the general electorate instead.
• The Congress rejected the Award. The League was not fully satisfied, as Muslims got less than their population share in the Punjab and Bengal, but accepted it.

The Government of India Act 1935 and Congress rule, 1937-1939

• 1935 Act: provincial autonomy replaced dyarchy; governors and the Viceroy kept special powers; separate electorates stayed.
• New provinces: Sindh (separated from Bombay) and Orissa. The NWFP had been a full governor's province since 1932.
• The federal part never came into force because too few princely states agreed to join.
• Reactions: Nehru called the Act a 'charter of slavery'; Jinnah called it 'thoroughly rotten'. Both parties still worked the provincial part.
• 1937 elections: the League won only a minority of the Muslim seats; the Unionist Party won the Punjab and Fazlul Haq's Krishak Praja Party led Bengal.
• Muslim complaints: 'Bande Mataram' sung as an anthem, the Congress flag on public buildings, the Wardha education scheme, Hindi promoted over Urdu. Set out in the Pirpur Report (1938).
• The Congress ministries resigned in late 1939 because the Viceroy declared India at war without consulting them. Day of Deliverance: 22 December 1939.

The emergence of Pakistan: 1940 to 1947

The Second World War and the Pakistan Resolution, 1940

• Lahore Resolution: passed at the Muslim League session in Lahore, March 1940 (23 March is remembered as Pakistan Day).
• Moved by A. K. Fazlul Haq, the premier of Bengal; Jinnah presided over the session.
• Demand: Muslim-majority areas in the north-west and east to be grouped into 'independent states' whose units would be autonomous and sovereign.
• The text did not use the word 'Pakistan'; the Hindu press named it the 'Pakistan Resolution' and the name stayed.
• Significance: the League's aim changed from safeguards inside India to a separate homeland, giving Muslims one clear goal.
• Quit India, August 1942: a Congress campaign for the British to leave at once; Gandhi, Nehru and other leaders were arrested.
• The League did not join Quit India; Jinnah's reply was 'Divide and Quit'.

The Cripps Mission, the Gandhi-Jinnah talks and the Simla Conference, 1942-1945

• Cripps Mission, March 1942: dominion status after the war, an elected body to write the constitution, and the right of any province to opt out.
• The Congress rejected it: it wanted power at once (Gandhi called it a 'post-dated cheque') and disliked the opt-out.
• The League rejected it: the opt-out was not a clear acceptance of Pakistan.
• Gandhi-Jinnah talks, Bombay, September 1944: Gandhi wanted the British to leave first and a plebiscite afterwards, and did not accept that Muslims were a separate nation.
• Jinnah wanted partition settled before the British left. The talks failed, but they showed him as the leader of the Muslims, dealing with Gandhi as an equal.
• Simla Conference, June 1945 (Wavell Plan): an Executive Council of Indians, with equal numbers of Muslims and caste Hindus.
• It failed because Jinnah insisted that only the League could name the Muslim members; the Congress wanted to name a Muslim too.

The 1945-46 elections, the Cabinet Mission Plan and Direct Action Day

• Elections 1945-46: the League won all 30 Muslim seats in the central assembly (December 1945) and most Muslim seats in the provinces (early 1946).
• Reasons for League success: a clear goal (Pakistan), better organisation since 1937, memories of Congress rule, and Jinnah's leadership.
• In the Punjab the League won most Muslim seats, but Khizr Hayat Tiwana of the Unionist Party formed a coalition government.
• Cabinet Mission, 1946: Lord Pethick-Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A. V. Alexander.
• Plan of May 1946: no Pakistan; a union centre for foreign affairs, defence and communications only; all other powers with the provinces.
• Groups: A = Hindu-majority provinces; B = the Punjab, NWFP, Sindh and Balochistan; C = Bengal and Assam.
• Nehru said in July 1946 that the Congress would not be bound by the plan, so the League withdrew. In the interim government (1946-47) Liaquat Ali Khan was Finance Member.

The June 3 Plan, the Radcliffe Award and the Indian Independence Act, 1947

• Attlee's statement, 20 February 1947: Britain to leave by June 1948. Mountbatten arrived in March 1947.
• June 3 Plan: two dominions; the Punjab and Bengal assemblies each voted in two sections on whether to divide the province.
• Sindh's assembly voted to join Pakistan; the NWFP and Sylhet district (Assam) decided by referendum.
• Radcliffe chaired both boundary commissions. His Award was made public on 17 August 1947, after independence.
• Controversies: Muslim-majority parts of Gurdaspur went to India (a land route to Kashmir); Ferozepur with its canal headworks went to India; Calcutta went to India.
• Indian Independence Act, July 1947: two independent dominions from 15 August 1947, each with its own Governor-General and Constituent Assembly, using the 1935 Act until a new constitution was made.
• British paramountcy over the princely states lapsed, so each state had to choose which dominion to join.

Jinnah, Allama Iqbal and Rahmat Ali

• Jinnah: joined the League in 1913 while still in the Congress; 'Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity'; left the Congress in 1920.
• Jinnah: Fourteen Points 1929; practised law in London in the early 1930s; returned to lead the League; presided at Lahore in 1940; known as Quaid-e-Azam ('Great Leader').
• Iqbal's Allahabad address, 1930 (as League president): the Punjab, NWFP, Sindh and Balochistan joined into one Muslim state.
• Iqbal's letters to Jinnah in 1936-37 urged him to lead Muslims towards a separate homeland. Iqbal died in 1938.
• Rahmat Ali's pamphlet 'Now or Never', 1933, used the name 'Pakstan': Punjab, Afghania (NWFP), Kashmir, Sindh and Balochistan.
• Comparison: Iqbal spoke of a Muslim state in the north-west that might be inside or outside the British Empire; Rahmat Ali wanted a fully independent state and rejected any all-India federation.
• Rahmat Ali's scheme was not taken up by Muslim leaders in 1933, but the name 'Pakistan' was adopted later.

Nationhood: 1947 to 1971

The initial problems of Pakistan, 1947-1948

• Independence: 14 August 1947; first capital: Karachi
• Cash balances: Pakistan's share was 750 million rupees; India paid 200 million, held back the rest, then paid 500 million after Gandhi's fast; 50 million was never paid
• Military assets were to be divided 36% to Pakistan and 64% to India; much of Pakistan's share arrived late, damaged or not at all
• All the ordnance factories were in India, so Pakistan built its own at Wah
• Jinnah was Governor-General and President of the Constituent Assembly
• Jinnah set up the Quaid-e-Azam Relief Fund for refugees and opened the State Bank of Pakistan on 1 July 1948
• Jinnah died on 11 September 1948

The Princely States, Kashmir and the Canal Water Dispute

• Junagadh: Muslim Nawab, Hindu majority; acceded to Pakistan in 1947; Indian troops took it over
• Hyderabad: the Nizam wanted to stay independent; Indian forces took it over in September 1948
• Kashmir: Maharaja Hari Singh (Hindu ruler, Muslim majority) acceded to India in October 1947
• India took the Kashmir issue to the UN in January 1948; ceasefire from 1 January 1949; a plebiscite was called for but never held
• Canal water: headworks at Madhopur and Ferozepur were in India; India stopped the water on 1 April 1948
• Indus Waters Treaty, 1960 (World Bank help): Indus, Jhelum and Chenab to Pakistan; Ravi, Beas and Sutlej to India

Governments and constitution-making, 1948-1958

• Objectives Resolution: 12 March 1949, moved by Liaquat Ali Khan; sovereignty belongs to Allah; democracy, equality and social justice as set out by Islam; minorities free to practise their religions
• Liaquat Ali Khan: Liaquat-Nehru Pact (1950) on minorities; visited the USA in 1950; assassinated in Rawalpindi, October 1951
• Khawaja Nazimuddin: Prime Minister 1951 to 1953; dismissed by Governor-General Ghulam Muhammad in April 1953
• Ghulam Muhammad dissolved the first Constituent Assembly in October 1954
• One Unit Scheme, 1955: the provinces of the western wing merged into the single province of West Pakistan
• 1956 Constitution (23 March 1956): Islamic Republic of Pakistan; President must be a Muslim; one-house National Assembly with equal seats for each wing; parliamentary system
• 7 October 1958: Iskander Mirza declared martial law; Ayub Khan removed him later that month

Muhammad Ayub Khan and the 'Decade of Progress', 1958-1969

• Basic Democracies, 1959: elected local councils; 80,000 Basic Democrats (40,000 in each wing) also formed the electoral college
• 1962 Constitution: presidential system; President elected by the Basic Democrats
• January 1965 presidential election: Ayub Khan defeated Fatima Jinnah
• Land reforms, 1959: a ceiling on landholdings (500 acres irrigated, 1,000 acres unirrigated)
• Green Revolution: higher crop yields from new seeds, fertiliser and tube-wells
• Muslim Family Laws Ordinance, 1961: regulated marriage, divorce and polygamy
• War with India, September 1965; Tashkent Declaration, January 1966, mediated by the USSR; Ayub resigned on 25 March 1969 and handed power to General Yahya Khan

Yahya Khan and the creation of Bangladesh, 1969-1971

• Parity: equal seats for East and West, although the East had the larger population
• Six Points, 1966: a federal, parliamentary system; the centre to keep only defence and foreign affairs; separate currencies or controls on the movement of capital; taxation by the provinces; separate foreign exchange accounts; a militia for East Pakistan
• November 1970: a cyclone hit East Pakistan; the central relief effort was seen as slow
• December 1970 elections (300 seats): Awami League 160, all in the East; Pakistan People's Party 81, all in the West
• 1 March 1971: the opening of the Assembly was postponed; 25 March 1971: army action began in East Pakistan
• India backed the Mukti Bahini and invaded in December 1971
• 16 December 1971: Pakistani forces surrendered in Dhaka

Nationhood: 1971 to 1999 and Pakistan in world affairs

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, 1971-1977

• Simla Agreement, July 1972, with Indira Gandhi: disputes to be settled bilaterally; the Kashmir ceasefire line became the Line of Control
• 1973 Constitution: parliamentary system led by the Prime Minister; two houses (National Assembly and Senate); Islam the state religion; President and Prime Minister must be Muslims
• Industry: major industries nationalised from 1972; critics said this discouraged private investment
• Education, 1972: private schools and colleges nationalised
• Army: Federal Security Force set up as a paramilitary force under government control; Zia-ul-Haq made Chief of Army Staff in 1976 over more senior generals
• March 1977 elections: the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA), an alliance of opposition parties, said the results were rigged
• 5 July 1977: General Zia-ul-Haq took power

Zia-ul-Haq, 1977-1988

• Hudood Ordinances, 1979: Islamic punishments for crimes such as theft, drinking and adultery
• Zakat and Ushr Ordinance, 1980: zakat taken from savings accounts and ushr from farm produce
• Federal Shariat Court, 1980: examined whether laws agreed with Islam
• Majlis-e-Shoora, 1981: a nominated advisory council, not an elected parliament
• Separate electorates were introduced for religious minorities
• February 1985: non-party elections; the Eighth Amendment let the President dismiss the Prime Minister and dissolve the National Assembly; martial law was lifted in December 1985
• 17 August 1988: Zia was killed in a plane crash

Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif, 1988-1999

• Benazir Bhutto, 1988 to 1990: first woman to lead a Muslim-majority country; survived a no-confidence motion in 1989; dismissed by President Ghulam Ishaq Khan in August 1990
• Nawaz Sharif, 1990 to 1993: privatisation of state industries and banks; US aid was cut off in 1990 over the nuclear programme; in 1993 he was dismissed, restored by the Supreme Court, and then both he and the President resigned
• Benazir Bhutto, 1993 to 1996: violence in Karachi and inflation; dismissed by President Farooq Leghari, a member of her own party
• Nawaz Sharif, 1997 to 1999: Thirteenth Amendment (1997) removed the President's power to dismiss governments
• May 1998: nuclear tests at Chagai
• 12 October 1999: Sharif tried to dismiss General Musharraf while he was abroad; the army took power

Pakistan as a nuclear power; relations with India and Bangladesh

• India's nuclear test, 1974, led Pakistan to speed up its programme; enrichment at Kahuta under Dr Abdul Qadeer Khan
• May 1998: India tested first; Pakistan tested at Chagai on 28 May 1998
• Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty: Pakistan will not sign while India has not signed
• USA: aid cut off in 1990 over the nuclear programme; sanctions after the 1998 tests
• Agreements with India: Indus Waters Treaty (1960), Tashkent Declaration (1966, after the 1965 war), Simla Agreement (1972, after the 1971 war), Lahore Declaration (1999)
• Conflict over the Siachen Glacier since 1984; Kargil conflict on the Line of Control, 1999
• Bangladesh: recognised by Pakistan in 1974 at the Lahore Islamic Summit; the stranded 'Biharis' remained a problem

Relations with Afghanistan, Iran, China, the USSR, the USA, the UK and the UN

• Afghanistan: voted against Pakistan's admission to the UN in 1947; did not accept the Durand Line; supported Pakhtunistan
• Iran: first country to recognise Pakistan; RCD formed in 1964 by Pakistan, Iran and Turkey
• China: border agreement in 1963; Karakoram Highway completed in 1978; Pakistan arranged Kissinger's secret visit to Beijing in 1971
• USA: Pakistan joined SEATO (1954) and the Baghdad Pact (1955, later called CENTO); large US aid again after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979
• USSR: relations worsened in 1960 when a US spy plane flown from Pakistan was shot down; it mediated at Tashkent in 1966 and helped to build Pakistan Steel Mills near Karachi
• Commonwealth: Pakistan left in 1972 when members moved to recognise Bangladesh; it rejoined in 1989